Lecture discussed on the 29th April 2025 at the University of Oxford, England.

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This paper critically evaluates whether Yeshua (Jesus of Nazareth) taught a Trinitarian understanding of God and whether he introduced a second covenant that abrogated the Mosaic covenant established with Israel.

Drawing from the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, Jewish rabbinic tradition, and early Christian writings, this study explores the historical, theological, and linguistic contexts of relevant scriptural passages.

The analysis demonstrates that Yeshua did not explicitly teach Trinitarian doctrine and that his references to a "new covenant" align more with prophetic Jewish expectations of covenant renewal than covenant replacement.

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Introduction

The doctrines of the Trinity and the so-called "Second Covenant" lie at the heart of Christian theology. Mainstream Christian belief holds that Jesus (Yeshua) revealed the triune nature of God and instituted a new covenant that superseded the Torah-based covenant with Israel. However, these claims have been challenged by scholars, theologians, and Jewish critics who argue that such doctrines represent later developments rather than the original message of Yeshua.

This paper explores both sides of the argument, rooted in scriptural texts, historical theology, and rabbinic commentary.

 

I. The Covenant in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism The foundational covenants in Jewish scripture include the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.

Genesis chapter 17 verse 7 establishes an “everlasting covenant” (ברית עולם) with Abraham and his descendants. The Mosaic covenant, mediated through Moses at Sinai (Exodus chapter 19 verse 24), includes the giving of the Torah and stipulations binding Israel to YHWH. These covenants are characterised as eternal (Deuteronomy chapter 29 verse 29; Psalm chapter 105 verses 8 - 10).

 

Second Temple Judaism, the religious context in which Yeshua lived, was firmly grounded in covenantal monotheism. The Shema Prayer (“Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One,” Deuteronomy chapter 6 verse 4) served as the theological centerpiece of Jewish worship and identity.

 

Covenant faithfulness (Hebrew, "emunah" (אמונה)) was expressed through Torah observance, not abstract belief systems.

 

II. The “New Covenant” in Yeshua’s Teachings Christian theology often points to Jeremiah chapter 31 verses 31 - 34 as the scriptural basis for a new covenant:

 

"Behold, the days are coming, declares the LORD, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah... I will put my law within them, and I will write it on their hearts" (Jeremiah chapter 31 verses 31, 33).

 

Importantly, the covenant is still with “The house of Israel and Judah,” and the Torah is not abolished but internalised. This prophecy is echoed in Luke chapter 22 verse 20, where Yeshua at the Last Supper says, “This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood.”

Matthew chapter 5 verse 17 clearly states Yeshua’s fidelity to the Torah: “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them.” The Greek word for fulfill (πληρωσαι) can mean to “bring to full expression” rather than to terminate.

 

The early Jerusalem community, led by James (Ya’aqov), continued Torah observance (Acts chapter 21 verses 20 - 26), reinforcing the idea that the original Jewish followers of Yeshua did not interpret his teachings as replacing the Mosaic covenant.

 

III. Scriptural and Historical Evaluation of Trinitarian Claims

A. Scriptural Passages Cited in Favour of the Trinity

1. John chapter 10 verse 30 - “I and the Father are one.”

   • Trinitarian interpretation: Unity of essence.

   • Alternative reading: Greek word “hῐν” (hen) denotes unity in purpose, not personhood. Supported by John chapter 17 verses 11, 21 - 23.

2. Matthew chapter 28 verse 19 - Baptismal formula: “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.”

   • Possibly a later interpolation. Early sources like Eusebius often cite this verse without the Trinitarian phrasing.

3. John chapter 1 verse 1 - “The Word was with God, and the Word was God.”

   • Johannine prologue reflects later Logos theology influenced by Hellenistic philosophy, particularly Philo of Alexandria.

B. Scriptural Passages Against Trinitarianism

1. John chapter 17 verse 3 - Yeshua calls the Father “the only true God” and refers to himself as “Jesus Christ whom you have sent.”

2. John chapter 14 verse 28 - “The Father is greater than I.”

3. Mark chapter 12 verse 29 - Yeshua affirms the Shema Prayer, maintaining Jewish monotheism.

4. Acts chapter 2 verse 22 - Peter calls Yeshua “a man attested to you by God.”

5. John chapter 20 verse 17 - Yeshua says, “I ascend to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.”

 

IV. Patristic Development of the Trinity Trinitarian theology did not originate in the teachings of Yeshua but developed over time:

• Justin Martyr (2nd century): Describes the Logos as divine but subordinate.

• Tertullian (c. 200): First to use "Trinitas," still subordinate view.

• Origen (3rd century): Introduced the idea of the Son’s eternal generation.

• Council of Nicaea (325 CE): Declares the Son “of the same essence” (homoousios) with the Father.

• Council of Constantinople (381 CE): Establishes the full doctrine of the Trinity.

These developments reveal a doctrinal trajectory, not a static belief originating with Yeshua.

 

V. Rabbinic Responses and Jewish Perspectives on Yeshua Rabbinic literature does not portray Yeshua as divine or as a lawgiver supplanting the Torah. Instead, texts like the Talmud (b. Sanhedrin 43a) treat him as a controversial Jewish teacher or political rebel.

Maimonides, in his “Letter to Yemen,” rejects the divinity of Jesus and underscores the eternal binding nature of the Mosaic law:

 

“The Torah of Moses, our teacher, is not subject to annulment or to addition… and whoever claims otherwise is a false prophet.”

Modern Jewish scholars such as Geza Vermes and Daniel Boyarin view Yeshua within a Jewish framework, recognising him as a Galilean Hasid or apocalyptic preacher, not a divine being.

 

Conclusion

The evidence from scripture, Jewish tradition, and historical theology suggests that Yeshua neither taught the Trinity nor intended to replace the Mosaic covenant. The doctrine of the Trinity and the supersessionist interpretation of the "new covenant" emerged gradually and reflect theological evolutions within the Gentile church.

A faithful reading of Yeshua’s words, in their Jewish context, presents him as a Torah-observant teacher committed to the God of Israel.

 

Bibliography

• Bauckham, Richard. Jesus and the God of Israel. Eerdmans, 2008.

• Boyarin, Daniel. The Jewish Gospels: The Story of the Jewish Christ. New Press, 2012.

• Dunn, James D. G. Did the First Christians Worship Jesus? Westminster John Knox, 2010.

• Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History. Translated by G.A. Williamson. Penguin Classics, 1989.

• Jeremias, Joachim. New Testament Theology: The Proclamation of Jesus. SCM Press, 1971.

• Maimonides, Moses. Letter to Yemen. Translated by Abraham Halkin.

• Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian’s Reading of the Gospels. Fortress Press, 1973.

• Wright, N.T. Jesus and the Victory of God. Fortress Press, 1996.

 

Footnotes

1. Genesis 17:7; Exodus 19–24; Psalm 105:8–10.

2. Jeremiah 31:31–34; Luke 22:20.

3. Matthew 5:17; cf. James 2:10.

4. John 10:30; John 17:21.

5. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Book III.

6. John 17:3; John 14:28; Acts 2:22.

7. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho.

8. Maimonides, Letter to Yemen, sec. 2.

9. Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels, 34–35.

10. Dunn, Did the First Christians Worship Jesus?, 111–114.